The aircraft propeller evolved from an early rotating-screw idea into a true flight-producing instrument through two decisive leaps. In maritime form, the propeller was patented in 1836 by Francis Pettit Smith in Britain and, independently that same year, by John Ericsson in the United States; these marine screw patents supplied the initial mechanical concept but delivered little guidance for flight.
The decisive shift to flight came with the Wright Brothers, who recognized that an aircraft propeller must behave like a spinning wing rather than a simple spiral. Working from winter 1902 to spring 1903, they produced the first twisted-airfoil propeller, establishing the fundamental swept, helical blade shape still used today. In constructing the world's first practical fixed-pitch propeller they achieved 82% efficiency-enough to lift the 1903 Flyer.
Expert behind this article
Jim Goodrich
Jim Goodrich is a pilot, aviation expert and founder of Tsunami Air.
Who invented aircraft propellers?
Francis Pettit Smith invented the propeller in 1836, and John Ericsson shared early patents, yet the device remained a maritime curiosity until December 1903. At that moment the Wright brothers designed and constructed the world's first practical fixed-pitch propeller, carved their own wooden propellers from walnut, and realized that aircraft propellers must be designed more like a wing. Using wind-tunnel tests and aerodynamic theory, they calculated propeller performance, chose twin pusher propellers counter-rotating to cancel torque, and achieved about 82% efficiency. Orville Wright later suggested that Robert N. Hartzell manufacture aircraft propellers using walnut wood, launching a supply chain that still bears the Hartzell name.
What is the history of the aircraft propeller?
Propellers evolved from fixed pitch wood propellers. The screw invented by Archytas of Tarentum and the rotating screw design invented by Archimedes in 200 BC supplied the original concept. Early screws were used by ancient civilizations to lift water from wells, and a cuneiform inscription of Assyrian King Sennacherib describes casting water screws in bronze. This rotating screw design was later applied to ships before it inspired aircraft use.
The 1903 Wright Flyer was the first major use of propellers in aircraft. The Wright brothers designed and built the 1903 Wright Flyer with twin wooden propellers. They deemed blades of a propeller to be a collection of wings and covered the tips with canvas to keep the wood from splitting. Wilbur and Orville used data from wind tunnel tests to shape the blades so that each propeller exerted linear thrust upon working fluid like air. The original propeller used on the 1903 Wright Flyer is now on display at the National Air and Space Museum.
Wooden propellers limitations became evident as they cracked and delaminated. To overcome these weaknesses propellers evolved to automatic propellers made from durable lightweight materials. Variable pitch propellers introduced into air force service allowed the pilot to manually adjust the blades' pitch and to maintain better control over aircraft performance. Constant-speed propellers are variable pitch propellers that adjust pitch automatically to maintain a constant rotational speed. Thus, propellers have evolved from fixed pitch wood propellers to automatic propellers made from much more durable and lightweight materials.
What is the timeline of airplane propeller development?
The timeline of the airplane propeller begins long before flight. In 400 BC Archytas put an inclined plane on a cylinder, and in 200 BC Archimedes invented the rotating screw design that ancient civilizations later used to lift water from wells. These helical ideas were dormant until the nineteenth century, when Sir George Cayley designed a flying machine and Jules Henri Giffard piloted a steam-powered dirigible in 1852, each equipped with twin propellers.
Powered fixed-wing aviation opened in 1903 when the Wright brothers used fixed-pitch propellers on the Wright Flyer. Between 1905 and 1915 bent-end propellers, whose twist and parabolic camber produced 210 pounds of thrust (95.3 kg), became the distinguishing feature on Wright aircraft. A set was used on a Wright Model A in 1910 and on the Wright Model K in 1915. During World War I propeller technology advanced rapidly, and after the war automatic propellers were developed to maintain an optimum angle of attack. Low-speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by the 1920s, and from 1916 William F. Durand directed propeller research for NACA, which conducted wind-tunnel tests from the 1920s to the 1950s, measuring propeller efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed.
Jim GoodrichPilot, Airplane Broker and Founder of Tsunami Air
The 1930s and 1940s brought pilot-controlled versatility. Wright brothers used variable-pitch propellers in 1929, and during World War II electrically controlled propellers appeared, while constant-speed propellers were developed later to let a constant-speed propeller automatically change the blade pitch so that a chosen rotational speed is maintained. In the 1950s Hoffmann Propeller developed a 3-position variable-pitch propeller, and today modern propellers convert 82-83% of their rotational energy to thrust, proving that the screw which once lifted water now lifts entire aircraft.
